Chronology of Biblical Events

January 8, 2015
Copyright © 2003, 2009 Ronald W. Leigh, Ph.D.
Bible quotations are from the New International Version and
the New American Standard Bible unless otherwise noted.

A timeline of biblical events provides a helpful perspective for the study of any individual event.  However, building a chronology and assigning dates to individual events is a complicated task.  This paper merely provides background information and biblical data needed to build a chronology of biblical events up through the life of Christ.  For a summary timeline covering Abraham thru the destruction of Jerusalem see the overview chart in the paper "Ancient Israel and the Abrahamic Covenant."

I. CALENDARS

The study of chronology is aided by an understanding of the development of various calendars.  Calendars were initially created in order to regulate agricultural and civil events.  They also contributed to the accurate recording of events and thus provide a means of establishing chronologies.  However, there are many different calendars that have been used by different groups in both ancient and modern times.  (One internet resource, of many, is: webexhibits.org/calendars.)

Calendar Basics

Calendars have typically begun with shorter cycles, such as the day and the month, and attempted to count a certain number of days or months to measure out a year.

A brief comment is needed here about the viewpoint adopted to define a day, month, or year.  Based on a model of the solar system and the stars, astronomers are able to "view" our solar system from a theoretical viewpoint outside the solar system and thus measure revolutions of the earth and moon in reference to the positions of the stars.  This is different than viewing the sun and the moon from the earth as they appear to rotate around the earth.  In the first case, the viewing "platform" is more absolute and fixed, but in the second case the viewing "platform" itself moves and rotates.  Thus the observations made from these two different viewpoints are slightly different.  For example, when you adopt the outside viewpoint, you make use of a sidereal day which is about four minutes shorter than a solar day.  But we are concerned here with solar days rather than sidereal days.  And we are concerned with synodic months, that is, lunar cycles based on the moon's phases as observed from earth rather than on its absolute orbits.

Thus, a day will involve one complete apparent cycle of the earth's rotation (in relation to the sun as viewed from the earth), perhaps from sunrise to sunrise, or high noon to high noon.  Similarly, a month (lunar cycle) will involve one complete cycle of the moon, perhaps from new moon to new moon.  And the year will involve one complete cycle of the sun's changing path across the sky, perhaps from vernal equinox to vernal equinox.  An equinox occurs twice a year when the sun, at high noon, stands directly above the equator, making the length of the day and the length of the night equal.  The spring or vernal equinox occurs on March 20 or 21, the fall or autumnal equinox on September 22 or 23.

A calendar must pay attention to short cycles, such as the day, but also must be able to predict annual seasons for such things as planting, harvest, and preparation for winter.  The problem is that none of the longer cycles are exact (whole number) multiples of the shorter cycles.  Here are the figures, from modern observations:

• There are 29.53059 days in a month (one lunar cycle)
• There are 365.242199 days in a year (one solar cycle or "seasonal year")
• There are 12.36827 months (lunar cycles) in a year (one solar cycle or "seasonal year")

Most ancient calendars are variations of two basic schemes.  One scheme is called a lunar calendar because it attempts to build on the lunar cycle.  This scheme alternately assigns 29 days to one calendar month and 30 days to the next (so that the average is 29½ days), counts 12 such months, which would thus equal 354 days (more than 11 days short of an actual year), and then adds an extra month every two or three years as needed to make the calendar match the seasons.  For many cultures using a lunar calendar, the adjustments are made on the basis of astronomical observations, but some cultures base their adjustments on observed life cycles, such as migrating birds or spawning fish.

The other scheme is called a solar calendar because it pays less attention to lunar cycles and attempts to make its calendar months such a length that there will be a consistent number of months in every year.  This scheme makes the calendar months longer than an actual month (such as a mix of 30 day months and 31 day months), counts 12 such months (which comes very close to the number of days in an actual year), then makes one day adjustments every few years to make the calendar match the seasons.

By the way, it is interesting to note that certain of the ancients were very skilled in their observations and calculations.  As early as the 1300's B.C., Chinese astronomers had calculated the solar year at 365¼ days, and the time between new moons at 29½ days.  Also, the great Greek astronomer Hipparchus discovered the precession of the equinoxes and thus was able to make very precise calculations of the number of days and months in a year, accurate to 6 significant digits, as early as 127 B.C.  (The precession of the equinoxes is their very slow shift, caused by a very gradual change in the direction of the earth's rotational axis, amounting to only about 14 degrees every thousand years.)

The Development of Our Gregorian Calendar

One of the earliest practical calendars was the civil calendar developed in Egypt.  It was the basis for the Julian calendar which was developed by the Romans and used in western Europe from 45 B.C. until the late 1500's.  The current Gregorian calendar, introduced in A.D. 1582 by Pope Gregory XIII, is a refinement of the Julian calendar and now enjoys nearly universal acceptance.

The Egyptian civil calendar was a solar calendar with 12 months of 30 days each plus five added festival days.  Thus the Egyptian civil year was exactly 365 days without any adjustment.  This civil calendar rather quickly ran ahead of the seasons (approximately one day early every four years).  Thus agricultural predictions, particularly the flooding of the Nile, had to depend on astronomical observations because of the inaccuracy of the civil calendar.

Julius Caesar abandoned the troublesome lunar calendar the Romans had previously used (which had become several months ahead of the seasons) and adopted a calendar patterned after the Egyptian solar calendar of 365 days.  With the help of the mathematician Sosigenes, Caesar rectified the situation by adding 80 calendar days to the year 46 B.C. and by adding a leap year with an extra day every four years.  Thus, the Julian calendar established an average year of exactly 365¼ solar days.  Even though this number is very close to the actual number of days in a year, after many years the calendar would again lose its synchronization with the seasons.  Thus, over several centuries the Julian calendar became late – the new year's day indicated by the calendar fell several days after the true new year as determined by astronomical observations.  By A.D. 1582 the vernal equinox came on March 11 instead of March 21 (the date of the equinox in A.D. 325 at the Council of Nicea), so the calendar was 10 days late.

The current Gregorian calendar was adopted in order to compensate for this error by making two adjustments.  First, to allow the calendar date to catch up with the true date, Pope Gregory eliminated 10 calendar days in 1582 by decreeing that October 5 should be called October 15.  Second, in order to speed up the pace of the calendar, the number of leap years was reduced.  Every 400 years three leap-year-days were removed – one day from each year divisible by 100 but not from any year divisible by 400.  Thus, 1700, 1800, and 1900 are not leap years, but 1600 and 2000 are.  This scheme is accurate enough that it would require several thousand years for the calendar to become one day out of sync.

The Gregorian calendar is very widely accepted in western culture.  The Roman Catholic nations of Europe adopted it shortly after it was introduced.  Other nations adopted it gradually over the next few hundred years:  Great Britain and the American colonies in 1752, China in 1912, Russia in 1918, Greece in 1923, and Turkey in 1927.

Other Modern Calendars

The modern Gregorian calendar starts counting with year 1 at the beginning of the Christian Era.  Today most nations use this calendar for public purposes.  However, some countries and groups retain their own traditional or religious calendars as their only calendar, while others maintain a Gregorian calendar for public use alongside a traditional or religious calendar for private use.  The traditional or religious calendars are typically lunar calendars having months of either 29 or 30 days because of the moon's cycle of approximately 29½ days.  Adjustments are needed to keep such calendars synchronized with the seasons.

The Chinese traditional calendar:  Seven times during each 19 year period a month is repeated.  Year 1 on the Chinese calendar was 2637 B.C. on our Gregorian calendar, which would make our year A.D. 2000 theoretically equivalent to year 4637 on the Chinese calendar.  However, new eras are started frequently so that July 1, 2000 A.D. is actually equivalent to cycle 78, year Geng-chen, month 5, day 30 on the Chinese calendar.  This calendar is nearly as accurate as the Gregorian calendar over long periods of time.

The Islamic religious calendar:  This calendar is strictly lunar, consisting of 12 months which alternate between 30 and 29 days, although the last month occasionally has an extra day.  No months are added to keep the calendar synchronized with the seasons, so the beginning of the year regresses through all the seasons in approximately 32 years.  Year 1 on the Islamic calendar was A.D. 622.  Since a year on the Islamic calendar is shorter than a year on our Gregorian calendar, conversion of dates between these two calendars is not a simple matter of adding and subtracting year numbers.  A.D. 2000 was 1420-1421 on the Islamic calendar.

The Hebrew civil calendar:  (This is the secular Hebrew calendar, not the religious year of the Old Testament.)  Seven times during each 19 year period an extra 29 day month is added in the middle of the year, and an extra day is added in the fifth month.  A 12 month year can have as few as 353 days, while a 13 month year can have as many as 385 days.   Year 1 on the Hebrew calendar was 3760-3761 B.C., so A.D. 2000 was 5760-5761 on the Hebrew calendar (the Hebrew year begins in the fall, our mid September, rather than mid-winter).  This calendar is nearly as accurate as the Gregorian calendar over long periods of time.

One extreme exception to the practice of retaining a traditional or religious calendar was the French Republican calendar adopted in 1793 during the French Revolution.  This was an attempt to rid the calendar of all religious and ecclesiastical connections.  All months were renamed, made 30 days long, and divided into three weeks of 10 days each.  There was even an attempt to divide the day into decimal parts.  Year 1 was placed in A.D. 1792.  This calendar was short-lived as Napoleon replaced it with the Gregorian calendar at the end of 1805.

Ancient Calendars

Ancient calendars varied widely.  First, different cultures adopted different points for the start of the day, such as sunrise, midnight, or sunset.  Second, the divisions of the day varied from culture to culture – some used six periods, others used 12, 24, or 30 "hours."  Also, some used seasonal hours, that is, longer daylight hours in summer (up to 75 minutes) and shorter hours in winter (as little as 45 minutes), so that there were always 12 hours of daylight no matter what season.  Others used hours of fixed length, so that winter days had less hours than summer days.  Third, the number of days in a week (or, the interval between market days) varied in different locations, anywhere from four to ten days.  Fourth, the lengths of months varied and the number of months in a year.  Fifth, the lengths of years varied and the beginning date of the year varied.  Sixth, the method of inserting leap days varied.

The Egyptian calendar:  The Egyptians invented the 24 hour day which used seasonal hours.  As far as the year is concerned, the Egyptians developed three different calendars, all of which were used simultaneously for different purposes – an original lunar calendar for agricultural purposes, a civil calendar which was used by government, and a revised lunar calendar used for religious matters.  Observations of the star Sirius and the seasonal flooding of the Nile helped them synchronize their calendars with the seasons.  Their civil calendar was made up of 12 months of 30 days each, with 5 extra days after the last month.  Because they did not allow for the extra ¼ day, this calendar gradually outpaced the actual solar year – approximately one month every 125 years.

The Babylonian/Persian calendar:  In order to keep the calendar synchronized with the seasons, the astrologers added a month, usually three years out of each eight year period, or whenever they discovered that the calendar had run too far ahead of the seasons.  After Persia conquered Babylonia in 538 B.C., this calendar was made the standard for all of Persia.

The Roman calendar:  The earliest Roman calendar, supposedly adopted shortly after the founding of the city of Rome in 753 B.C. by Romulus, had only 10 months of varying lengths and a year of only 304 days.  There was a gap of more than 60 days in the middle of winter which were simply not counted.  Numa Pompilius, the successor of Romulus, added two winter months, plus an additional month of 22 or 23 days every other year in order to synchronize the calendar with the seasons.  This calendar, with numerous variations and many problems, was used for over 600 years until the Julian calendar was adopted.

The ancient Hebrew civil calendar:  Most of what is known about the ancient Hebrew civil calendar relates to the period from the beginning of the Babylonian Exile (586 B.C.) to the destruction of Jerusalem in A.D. 70.  It was a lunar calendar with the civil year beginning in the fall and the first month coinciding with the 7th month of the religious calendar.  The names of the months were borrowed from the Babylonian calendar.

The ancient Hebrew religious calendar:  This was also a lunar calendar.  The religious year began with the month of the Passover, so that Passover always came at a full moon as it did for the first Passover.

The LORD said to Moses and Aaron in Egypt, This month is to be for you the first month, the first month of your year. Tell the whole community of Israel that on the tenth day of this month each man is to take a lamb for his family, one for each household. ... Take care of them until the fourteenth day of the month, when all the people of the community of Israel must slaughter them at twilight. Then they are to take some of the blood and put it on the sides and tops of the doorframes of the houses where they eat the lambs. That same night they are to eat the meat roasted over the fire, along with bitter herbs, and bread made without yeast. ... This is how you are to eat it: with your cloak tucked into your belt, your sandals on your feet and your staff in your hand. Eat it in haste; it is the LORD's Passover. On that same night I will pass through Egypt and strike down every firstborn -- both men and animals -- and I will bring judgment on all the gods of Egypt. I am the LORD. The blood will be a sign for you on the houses where you are; and when I see the blood, I will pass over you. No destructive plague will touch you when I strike Egypt.  This is a day you are to commemorate; for the generations to come you shall celebrate it as a festival to the LORD -- a lasting ordinance. For seven days you are to eat bread made without yeast. ... Celebrate the Feast of Unleavened Bread, because it was on this very day that I brought your divisions out of Egypt. Celebrate this day as a lasting ordinance for the generations to come. In the first month you are to eat bread made without yeast, from the evening of the fourteenth day until the evening of the twenty-first day.  (Exodus 12:1-3, 6-8, 11-15,17-18)

Sound the ram's horn at the New Moon, and when the moon is full, on the day of our Feast ....  (Psalm 81:3)

Post-exilic Name
of Month
(pre-exilic name
in parentheses)

Approximate
Modern
Equiv. (see
explanation 
below)

Festival Days and Names

Seasonal and Agricultural Events

Explanation of second column:  Since our calendar is solar rather than lunar, there is no exact correspondence between their months and our months.  Their months were determined by the average length of the moon's cycle, and their new year began on a new moon.  Our months are derived from convenient divisions of the year, regardless of new moons.  (These two calendars illustrate the two schemes explained above under "Calendar Basics.")  They had to add an extra month every few years (usually every 3 years, occasionally 2) in order to synchronize their calendar with the seasons, resulting in years of varying lengths.  Thus, if we were to attempt to superimpose our calendar on top of theirs, we would find that their months would begin at certain dates in our calendar one year, but the next year their months would begin at different dates in our calendar.  Astronomers can calculate when new moons occurred for any previous year, but cannot calculate during which years the extra months were actually added.

Small Inaccuracies

Our Gregorian calendar allows very precise dating of current events.  The year, month, and day can be recorded for any two events in such a way that, even if the events are widely separated in distance and time, they can be related properly to each other and placed into an overall chronology.

However, many of the events recorded in the Bible were dated only to the year (sometimes to the year and month) within the reign of a known ruler.  This is referred to as regnal dating.  But this regnal year must also be accurately correlated with the reigns of other rulers in order for two dates from different regions, or from different periods, to be properly compared and for an overall chronology to be developed.

In addition, there are two different forms of regnal dating, depending on whether or not the first portion of a year, between a king's ascension to the throne and the next civil new year, is counted.  Ascension year dating does not count that first portion of a year.  Rather, it counts the next year as the first year of that king's reign.  In contrast, non-ascension year dating counts the first portion of a year.  Thus, for example, a certain event might be said to occur in either the 3rd year of the king's reign (using ascension year dating) or the 4th year of the king's reign (using non-ascension year dating).  The problem is that it is often impossible to tell which form of regnal dating is being used.  This issue is especially relevant to the chronological material found in the books of Kings and Chronicles.

Another source of uncertainty is more relevant to the chronological sections in Genesis 5 and 11, which tell us the ages of individuals when certain things happened, such as a son being born.  We cannot be certain in any given instance whether inclusive or non-inclusive counting is being used.  For example, in English we would make a distinction between saying "in his 50th year" (which means his previous birthday was his 49th) and saying that a person is "50 years old" (which means his previous birthday was his 50th).  In the former we are using inclusive counting (including the present year), but in the latter we are using non-inclusive counting (not including the present year).  Those passages in the Bible which make such statements about a persons age are often not clear as to whether inclusive or non-inclusive counting is being used.  Another type of inclusive counting, including the first year (or day) when measuring time spans, is discussed below in connection with the resurrection of Christ "in three days" (see the section on "Jesus Death and the Passover").

The above difficulties are minor, because they involve a possible error of only a year at a time.  Of course, the cumulative effect of such difficulties over many generations could add up to several decades.  However, these difficulties are far less problematic than the types of difficulties we will encounter when we try to correlate biblical events with extra-biblical records.  Here the potential inaccuracies can sometimes range into the centuries.

II. RELATED ANCIENT CHRONOLOGIES

One of the methods used to determine (or check) biblical chronology is to compare it with other ancient chronologies.  Of particular significance are those nations with which the Jews and Christians interacted, such as Egypt, Assyria, Babylon, and Rome.  For that reason we will look at the sources which form the basis of these chronologies and their usefulness for determining biblical chronology.

Egyptian Chronology

Egyptian history relates to a long period of biblical chronology stretching from the patriarchs to the intertestamental period.

The surviving written records used to construct a chronology of Egypt can be described as sketchy.  Consider the following three examples.

• First, the written history of Egypt begins around 3100 B.C., during the reign of Menes, the king of Upper Egypt who conquered Lower Egypt producing a unified kingdom.  At this time, the Egyptians began naming each year according to that year's most notable events.  These names were recorded on stone, along with the height of the Nile during its annual flood.  The practice continued for more than a thousand years and the "names" grew longer and longer becoming chronicles of the various king's accomplishments.  However, most of these stone annals are now lost, and those that have been found are in very poor condition and of little help.
• Second, around  1300 B.C. Egyptian priests used the stone annals to produce a list of the Egyptian kings and their reigns.  However, the only known copy of this list is in shreds with large sections missing.
• Third, around  270 B.C., after Alexander the Great had taken Egypt from the Persians, the Egyptian priest Manetho was asked to write a history of Egypt in Greek.  Although the annals were still available to Manetho, scholars are not sure how much of his history was true to the annals and how much was fiction.  But it makes little difference, because his history survives only in selected excerpts altered by later historians.

For many years Egyptologists have used fragmentary evidence such as that illustrated above to create a chronology which assigns dates to all the pharaohs.  However, there is not exact agreement among scholars, and they admit that some parts of their chronologies are better supported than others.  More recently, the accepted chronology has been challenged by David Rohl, who cites evidence to show that there may be more overlapping of the dynasties than was previously thought.  If Rohl is correct, the time span covered by the thirty dynasties is hundreds of years shorter than commonly accepted.  (See David Rohl, Pharaohs and Kings: A Biblical Quest, Crown, 1995)

Since Egyptian chronology is less than certain, it does not constitute a valid basis for determining biblical chronology.

Assyrian and Babylonian Chronology

Certain periods of Assyrian and Babylonian history relate to biblical chronology, particularly the period of the divided kingdom.

Mesopotamian chronology originally relied on a list of kings called Ptolemy's Canon.  Claudius Ptolemaeus was a Greek mathematician and astronomer who lived in Alexandria, Egypt during the middle A.D. 100's.  He is famous for writing the 13-volume Almagest and thus establishing the geocentric model of the solar system which prevailed throughout the middle ages.  His canon is a list of Mesopotamian kings along with the years each king reigned and notable astronomical events such as lunar eclipses.  It covers the period from 747 - 63 B.C.

Ptolemy's Canon has been generally corroborated by a combination of other sources including

• Cuneiform tablets found in Mesopotamia, which correlate certain political events with lunar eclipses
• Lists of Assyrian kings and lesser officials, known as eponym lists
• An Assyrian king list which goes back to 1700 B.C.
• The "King List A" and "The Babylonian Chronicle," discovered in 1881

The Babylonian and Assyrian dates for the period which relates to biblical chronology are fairly well established and form a valid check.

Roman Chronology

Roman history relates to the chronology of the entire New Testament.

The dates of Roman events for the first 100 years A.D. are based on a combination of historical texts, archeological finds, and references to astronomical events.  In general, they are considered relatively firm and can be considered a valuable aid in establishing a chronology of the New Testament.

III. THE CHRISTIAN ERA, THE BIRTH OF CHRIST

Establishing the Christian Era

The Romans, from 45 B.C. onward, used the Julian calendar, which meant that their year was 365¼ days long.  However, they had various starting points for their year count.  In some cases they counted from Greek Olympiads, every 4 years, or from the beginning of taxation cycles, every 14 or 15 years.  However, the method best suited for long range record keeping was the practice of dating events in relation to the founding of Rome.  Using this method they might say, for example, that Herod the Great began his rule in Palestine in 717 A.U.C. (37 B.C. in our reckoning).  A.U.C. is an abbreviation for either ab urbe condita or anno urbis conditae, referring to the founding of the city.

But the Romans did not all agree on the date of the founding of Rome (anywhere from 754 to 750 B.C. according to our reckoning) which meant that the A.U.C. dates they assigned current events would vary.  Eventually the date that we would call 754 B.C. became most widely accepted.

We currently use the abbreviation A.D. for anno Domini (Latin for "in the year of the Lord") and the abbreviation B.C. for "before Christ."  Non-Christians often use the designations C.E. (Christian era) and B.C.E. (before the Christian era).  Since the Christian era begins with the birth of Christ, C.E. is the equivalent of A.D., and B.C.E. is the equivalent of B.C.

The "Christian era" came into being because of the work of a Roman Catholic monk named Dionysius Exiguus.  He lived in Italy during the early A.D. 500's.  He was not directly attempting to institute a new era, that is, a new starting point.  Rather, he was attempting to find a solution to the problem of calculating the date of Easter.

Determining the date of Easter in any given year is not an easy task.  It is complicated by the fact that the resurrection of Christ followed a celebration of the Jewish Passover, which came on the 14th day of the first month in the ancient Hebrew calendar (Leviticus 23:5).  Their first month was called Nisan, which corresponds with our March/April.  The Hebrew calendar used months based on the observation of a new moon (rather than on a convenient division of a year), which means that, from year to year, the first month of the year would begin on a different day of the solar year.  Even today there are two different methods of calculating Easter.  Western churches place Easter on the first Sunday after the full moon which occurs on or next after the vernal equinox.  Eastern Orthodox churches, however, use a different formula and sometimes celebrate Easter up to 5 weeks later.

In the time of Dionysius, there were several methods of calculating Easter.  Some of the tables that were drawn up using these different methods used different starting years, including the beginning of the reign of the Roman Emperor Diocletian, who was known as "The Great Persecutor" of Christians.  Dionysius thought it preferable to start counting from the birth of Christ, thus creating the Christian Era.  It took several hundred years before this era with its new starting point was widely adopted. 

However, a miscalculation occurred.  Dionysius considered that Christ was born on December 25, 753 A.U.C.  The year A.D. 1 would then start on the following January 1 and would line up with 754 A.U.C.  However, since the Gospels record that Christ was born while Herod the Great was still alive (Matthew 2:1, 14-15, 19-20), and since Herod's death can be set in the early spring of 750 A.U.C. (4 B.C.), and since we are assuming that Christ could have been born any time during the year (not just on December 25, see "The Season" below), the latest possible date for Christ's birth is early during the same year Herod died (750 A.U.C. or 4 B.C.)  Although objections were raised to Dionysius' miscalculation, they came too late.  The solution, instead of shifting year A.D. 1 to an earlier A.U.C. date, shifted the birth of Christ to 4 B.C.  And since it is not known how long Herod lived after Christ was born, Christ's birth may have occurred a few years earlier than 4 B.C.

The Season

There is no evidence that Christ was born on December 25th.  That date for Christmas first appeared on a Roman calendar in A.D. 336.  December 25th came a few days after the week long celebration known as Saturnalia, a popular festival which honored the Roman god Saturn (god of harvest).  And it came on the same day as the birth of the god Mithras (god of light, or sun god), who was supposedly born from a rock and his birth was said to have been witnessed by shepherds.  December 25th was officially adopted as the birth date of Christ by Pope Julius I in A.D. 349.

Luke tells us that, on the day Christ was born, "there were shepherds living out in the fields nearby, keeping watch over their flocks at night" (Luke 2:8-11).  According to Maimonides (quoted by Alexander Hislop, Two Babylons, page 91, f.n.), living out in the fields usually ended with the arrival of the rainy season which started in our October.  Thus it is unlikely that Christ was born in December.  And since keeping watch at night was the practice of shepherds during the lambing season, which some claim was limited to the spring, it may be that the actual season of Christ's birth was during spring rather than winter.

Calculating years that involve both B.C. and A.D.

Care must be exercised when moving from dates B.C. to dates A.D., or vice versa.  Standard procedures used with signed numbers for making calculations on a continuous number line must be adjusted for the fact that there is no zero year.  Here are the rules:

The Death of Herod

The death of Herod occurred shortly after a lunar eclipse and shortly before Passover.  Astronomers fix the eclipse at March 12-13, 4 B.C., and Passover that year occurred on April 4.  Thus Herod died somewhere near the end of the first quarter of 4 B.C.

Below are excerpts from Josephus, the Jewish historian, which establish the timing of Herod's death in relation to the eclipse.

But Herod deprived this Matthias of the high priesthood, and burnt the other Matthias, who had raised the sedition, with his companions, alive. And that very night there was an eclipse of the moon.  But now Herod's distemper greatly increased upon him after a severe manner, and this by God's judgment upon him for his sins. . . . (Flaviuus Josephus, Antiquities of the Jews , Book XVII, Chap. 6, Par. 4-5, translated by William Whiston)

. . . as his pains were become very great, he was now ready to faint for want of somewhat to eat; so he called for an apple and a knife . . . .  When he had got the knife, he looked about, and had a mind to stab himself with it; and he had done it, had not his first cousin, Achiabus, prevented him, and held his hand, and cried out loudly. Whereupon a woeful lamentation echoed through the palace, and a great tumult was made, as if the king were dead. Upon which Antipater, who verily believed his father was deceased, grew bold in his discourse, as hoping to be immediately and entirely released from his bonds, and to take the kingdom into his hands without any more ado; so he discoursed with the jailer about letting him go, and in that case promised him great things . . . .  But the jailer did not only refuse to do what Antipater would have him, but informed the king of his intentions, and how many solicitations he had had from him [of that nature]. Hereupon Herod . . . sent for some of his guards, and commanded them to kill Antipater without tiny further delay, and to do it presently, and to bury him in an ignoble manner at Hyrcania. (op. cit., Chap. 7, Par. 1)

When he had done these things, he died, the fifth day after he had caused Antipater to be slain; having reigned, since he had procured Antigonus to be slain, thirty-four years; but since he had been declared king by the Romans, thirty-seven.  A man he was of great barbarity towards all men equally, and a slave to his passion . . . .  (op. cit., Chap. 8, Par. 1)

The Star

Matthew records that a star appeared to the Magi when Christ was born.  These Magi were wise men who studied the heavens, probably combining the fields of astronomy and astrology as we define those fields today.

Some have thought this star was a natural phenomenon.  They reason, for example, that the star may have been a conjunction of planets.  If so, modern astronomers would be able to calculate the exact date.  (Astronomers know, for example, that Jupiter appeared to pass very close to Regulus, the "King's star", three times during 3 and 2 B.C.)  Or perhaps the star was actually a nova, a comet, or even a meteor.  If so, ancient records of the event might allow historians to pinpoint the date.  But there are problems with the idea that the star was a natural phenomenon.

On the one hand, some imagine a scenario in which a natural astronomical event guided the wise men by its location in the sky, leading them to Jerusalem and then to Bethlehem.  But whenever someone is guided to a specific location, three aspects must be present to guarantee arrival at the correct destination – the person's starting location, the direction of travel, and the distance to travel.  We do not know exactly where these travelers started from, other than that they came from the east (Matthew 2:1).  The star, if it was a natural phenomenon such as a conjunction of planets or a nova or a comet, could not have given them either the direction or the distance to travel.  While such natural events appear at a certain point in the sky when they are observed early in the night, they appear at a different location later in the night due to the earth's rotation.  Thus, they cannot determine a particular direction on earth.  (Even if we assume that the direction was defined by the very first appearance at the beginning of the night, that would always be generally to the east.  But the Magi came from the east and traveled generally west.)  Also, such natural events could never tell a traveler when to stop, for after he thinks he has arrived, his "star" is still ahead of him, and he must travel further.  Thus, the direction is, at best, the wrong direction, and the distance is indeterminate, so this first scenario seems impossible.

On the other hand, some imagine a scenario in which a natural astronomical event guided the wise men, not by its location in the sky, but by its significance according to ancient lore.  This seems at first to be the more plausible scenario.  Remember that, according to Matthew (2:1-12), the wise men knew only that there had been the birth of a king of the Jews, but did not know where to find him.  Since he was to be king of the Jews, the wise men came to Jerusalem.  But they had to inquire of Herod where to go from there, and Herod had to inquire of the priests and teachers.  It was not the star, but the prophet Micah (5:2) who identified the town where the new king would be born, and Herod then told the wise men.  Only then did the wise men know that they had to go to Bethlehem.

But in this second scenario a natural astronomical event, no matter how much meaning it carried for the wise men, does not go far enough.  Matthew states that, as the wise men set out for Bethlehem, "the star they had seen in the east went ahead of them until it stopped over the place where the child was" (Matthew 2:9).  Such wording (which is similar in many translations) certainly implies that the star moved, then stopped.  This would never be the case with a conjunction of stars, a nova, or a comet, not even with a meteor.  Note that this was the same star the wise men had seen earlier (Matthew 2:9).

The Census

Caesar Augustus ordered a census which required Joseph and Mary, who were expecting the birth of Jesus, to travel to Bethlehem to register (Luke 2:1-5).  If the date of this census could be established, it would help determine the date of Jesus' birth.

Luke records that the census was "the first census that took place while Quirinius was governor of Syria" (verse 2).  However, Tertullian records that two other men, Sentius Saturninus and Quintilius Varus, governed Syria from 9 B.C. to A.D. 4, (Contra Marcion 4, 19).  And Josephus records that Quirinius conducted a census shortly after Herod Archelaus was deposed in A.D. 6 (Antiquities 17, 13, 5).  Quirinius' reign as governor covered the years A.D. 6-9.  But such a date for the census and the birth of Christ does not fit the date of 4 B.C. or earlier required by the death of Herod.

The solution lies in three additional facts.  First, when Luke calls Quirinius the "governor" of Syria, he uses a term (hegemoneuontos) which can refer to a lesser authority, not the official title (legatus) applying to a governor of an entire region.  Second, papyrus evidence from Egypt establishes a 14 year cycle for the census in Judea.  It also establishes that a census occurred in A.D. 20, which would place the previous census at A.D. 6, matching the evidence from Josephus.  Third, Luke states that the census was the "first" census of Quirinius, implying more than one.  The earlier census would have been in 9 B.C., the first year of the reign of Sentius Saturninus in Syria, assuming that the 14 year cycle was in effect this early.  Quirinius was evidently in charge of certain regional affairs under the governor of Syria.  (It should be noted that there is no known explicit historical record of this 9 B.C. census outside the Bible.  We speculate that a census occurred then only because of the historical records of the census in A.D. 20, the census in A.D. 6, and the 14 year pattern.)

Conclusion

Considering both the Gospel records and Jewish and Roman history, we can come to the following conclusion.  There is a window of slightly over 5 years, from 9 B.C. through early 4 B.C., for the date of the birth of Christ.

Some scholars suggest that it is reasonable to allow for a delay in the census in Judea because of Herod's various distractions and lack of cooperation with his superiors.  This would narrow the window somewhat and make the most likely dates for the birth of Christ from 7 B.C. to early 4 B.C.  However, it should be remembered that this delay is speculation.

IV. THE LIFE OF CHRIST

The beginning of Christ's ministry

Jesus' ministry began with his baptism, so we need to determine the date of that baptism.  There are two events in Roman history which help us determine this date, the reign of Tiberius Caesar and Herod's reconstruction of the temple.

Luke is very careful to place the ministry of Christ in its historical context (Luke 3:1-3).  He places the beginning of John the Baptist's ministry, which immediately preceded Christ's ministry, in the reign of Tiberius Caesar and in the reigns of several regional officers:  Pontius Pilate in Judea (A.D. 26-36), Herod (Antipas) in Galilee (4 B.C. - A.D. 39), Philip in Iturea and Trachonitis (4 B.C. - A.D. 34), and Lysanias in Abilene.  He also places it during the high priesthood of Annas and Caiaphas.

Luke states that John the Baptist received word from God and began his preaching ministry "in the fifteenth year of the reign of Tiberius Caesar" (Luke 3:1).  Roman history places the death of Augustus at A.D. 14.  But for two years Tiberius had reigned jointly with Augustus in the Jewish provinces, so the relevant starting date for the reign of Tiberius would be A.D. 12.  If the first year of Tiberius was A.D. 12, his 15th year would be A.D. 26.  John probably baptized Jesus within a year of the beginning of his preaching.  That would place the baptism of Christ at A.D. 26 or 27.

Early in Jesus' ministry he went to Jerusalem for the Passover (John 2:13).  After he cleared the temple courts the Jews questioned his authority, which prompted Jesus to predict his resurrection, referring to his body as the temple.  The Jews misunderstood and replied that it had taken 46 years to build the temple.  Herod had started the temple reconstruction in 20 B.C.  Using inclusive counting (counting the first year of reconstruction as year 1, and moving 45 years ahead) yields A.D. 26.  Using non-inclusive counting yields A.D. 27.  So the years A.D. 26 or 27 are reasonable dates for the beginning of Christ's ministry.

Luke also gives us the approximate age of Jesus at the beginning of his ministry.  He states that Jesus was "about thirty years old" (Luke 3:23).  He uses this same Greek word to make other approximations, such as about 5000 men fed in groups of about 50 (Luke 9:14), about 120 believers (Acts 1:15), and about 3000 converts (Acts 2:41).  Thus, "about" 30 probably means that the actual age was closer to 30 than it was to either 20 or 40, which would allow a range of several years less than or more than 30.  Adding exactly 30 years to 5 B.C. yields A.D. 26, which falls within the 26 or 27 stated earlier.  Although this may appear to confirm the birth date of 5 B.C., it should be kept in mind that there is a window of possible dates for the birth of Christ (see the conclusion of the previous section).  Using the earliest date in that window (9 B.C.) would make Christ 34 in A.D. 26 and 35 in A.D. 27.  Using the latest date in that window (4 B.C.) would make Christ 29 in A.D. 26 and 30 in A.D. 27.  Any of these ages, from 29 through 35 would fit the description of "about" 30.

There is another passage (John 8:57) which has been interpreted by some to indicate that Jesus was in his 40's during his ministry.  Jesus stated that Abraham saw Jesus' day, and the Jews responded sarcastically, "You are not yet fifty years old ... and you have seen Abraham!" By observation the Jews could tell that Jesus was not an old man.  They had no reason to know Jesus exact physical age.  (They also had no insight into his eternal "age" as the pre-incarnate Son of God.)  They were mocking Jesus by saying, in essence, that he was not even an old man but claimed to have seen Abraham who lived some 19 or 20 centuries earlier.  This statement would have had the same caustic effect and force of denial whether Jesus were in his 20's, 30's, or 40's, so it cannot be used as a precise indication of Jesus' age during his ministry.

The length of Christ's ministry

John explicitly mentions three Passovers (2:13, 23;  6:4; and 11:55) which fall within the ministry of Jesus, the last being at the time of his death.  John also mentions another feast (5:1) but this one is called "a feast of the Jews" and thus is not identified as a Passover.  Some interpreters consider this feast a Passover, other interpreters favor other feasts.  Also, between Jesus' baptism and the first Passover mentioned by John there are several events including Jesus' temptation after 40 days of fasting (Matthew 4:1-3) and travel from Bethany to Galilee and back to Jerusalem (John 1:28; 2:1-3, 13).  These events probably occupied just a few months (two months minimum and less than a year).

On the one hand, if the feast of John 5:1 was not a Passover, then the length of Jesus' ministry may have been as brief as 2 years and a few months.  On the other hand, if the feast of 5:1 was a Passover, then it may have been 3 years and a few months.  Possibly there are some Passovers within the ministry of Jesus that are not mentioned by John.  In that case his ministry may have been several years longer.

Combining the earlier date for Christ's baptism (A.D. 26) and a short ministry yields a date of A.D. 28 for the crucifixion.  Combining the later date for his baptism (A.D. 27) and a longer ministry yields a date of A.D. 30 or possibly later.

See the excellent summary regarding the length of Christ's ministry in Robert Culver's Systematic Theology: Biblical and Historical (Mentor, 2005) p. 463-464.

Jesus Death and the Passover

The Meaning of the Word Evening

The English word evening is flexible; it can be used in several different ways.  It can refer to (1) the close of the day and the first part of the night, or (2) in certain regions, afternoon, or (3) the time between supper and bedtime.

The common Hebrew word for evening is 'erebh.  It is also flexible, for it can refer to any of the following three concepts:
 

The important thing to notice about the word 'erebh is that its meaning is not limited to a period of darkness.  It usually refers to twilight, and can even refer to a time during the day when there are shadows.  (Similarly, the Hebrew word for morning often means dawn, but can also mean the part of the day when the sun is rising and shadows are shortening from dawn until noon, or the part of the night just before dawn.)

The Passover Lamb Sacrificed "Between the Evenings"

The instructions for the preparation of the Passover lambs state that the people are to "slaughter them at twilight" (Exodus 12:6, compare Leviticus 23:5;  Numbers 9:3,5).  In all three of these passages the NIV uses "twilight" to translate a Hebrew phrase containing 'erebh , which can be literally translated "between the two evenings" (see the NASB marginal note).

What does this phrase "between the two evenings" mean?  Since the blood of the sacrificed lamb had to be placed on the door frame, and the meat of the lamb had to be cooked in preparation for the evening meal (Exodus 12:7-9), it seems most reasonable to adopt the first sense (afternoon) in order to allow enough time.  Thus, the phrase "between the two evenings" probably means between the two halves of the afternoon, that is, in the middle of the afternoon or approximately 3 o'clock.

Josephus, the first century Jewish historian, confirms that the Jews did in fact begin the sacrifice of the Passover lamb at the ninth hour (the ninth hour from sunrise = 3:00 pm).

So these high priests, upon the coming of that feast which is called the Passover, when they slay their sacrifices, from the ninth hour till the eleventh ... ( Wars of the Jews, book 6, ch. 9 par. 3)

In a figurative sense, Jesus is our "Passover lamb."

Christ, our Passover lamb, has been sacrificed. (1 Corinthians 5:7, see also John 1:29,36;  1 Peter 1:19;  Revelation 5:5-14)

Thus, it is significant that Jesus' death is very closely connected in time with the Jewish celebration of the Passover.

Jesus anticipated the approaching Passover as the time of his death.

When Jesus had finished saying all these things, he said to his disciples, "As you know, the Passover is two days away -- and the Son of Man will be handed over to be crucified."  (Matthew 26:1-2)

It was just before the Passover Feast. Jesus knew that the time had come for him to leave this world and go to the Father. Having loved his own who were in the world, he now showed them the full extent of his love.  (John 13:1)

Then came the day of Unleavened Bread on which the Passover lamb had to be sacrificed. Jesus sent Peter and John, saying, "Go and make preparations for us to eat the Passover." ... So they prepared the Passover.  When the hour came, Jesus and his apostles reclined at the table. And he said to them, "I have eagerly desired to eat this Passover with you before I suffer.  (Luke 22:7-15)

Then the Jews led Jesus from Caiaphas to the palace of the Roman governor. By now it was early morning, and to avoid ceremonial uncleanness the Jews did not enter the palace; they wanted to be able to eat the Passover.  (John 18:28)

John records that the crucifixion actually took place on "the day of Preparation" (Greek: paraskeuē, John 19:30-31).  This term refers to the preparation for the Sabbath (compare Mark 15:42;  Luke 23:54) and had become a standard way of referring to the day before the Sabbath, what we call Friday.  It is also used in this sense in secular literature (for example, see Josephus Antiquities , book 16, chap 6, par 2).  It is called the preparation "of Passover Week" referring to the week long celebration of Unleavened Bread (Exodus 12:15).

The time of the trial before Pilate was around 6 a.m. (John is using Roman hours, starting at midnight).

It was the day of Preparation of Passover Week, about the sixth hour.  "Here is your king," Pilate said to the Jews.  But they shouted, "Take him away! Take him away! Crucify him!"  "Shall I crucify your king?" Pilate asked.  "We have no king but Caesar," the chief priests answered.  Finally Pilate handed him over to them to be crucified.  So the soldiers took charge of Jesus.  Carrying his own cross, he went out to the place of the Skull (which in Aramaic is called Golgotha). Here they crucified him, and with him two others -- one on each side and Jesus in the middle.  (John 19:14-18)

Mark records that Jesus was crucified at 9 a.m. (using Jewish hours starting at sunrise).

It was the third hour when they crucified him. (Mark 15:25)

Matthew describes darkness which lasted from noon to around 3 p.m. (also using Jewish hours starting at sunrise).  Jesus died at the end of this period of darkness, at the exact hour (one day later) that the Passover lambs had been sacrificed.

From the sixth hour until the ninth hour darkness came over all the land. About the ninth hour Jesus cried out in a loud voice, "Eloi, Eloi, lama sabachthani?" -- which means, "My God, my God, why have you forsaken me?"  When some of those standing there heard this, they said, "He's calling Elijah."  Immediately one of them ran and got a sponge. He filled it with wine vinegar, put it on a stick, and offered it to Jesus to drink. The rest said, "Now leave him alone. Let's see if Elijah comes to save him."  And when Jesus had cried out again in a loud voice, he gave up his spirit.  At that moment the curtain of the temple was torn in two from top to bottom.  (Matthew 27:45-51a)

However, in referring to his resurrection as the rebuilding of a temple (John 2:19-21), Jesus used slightly different wording when he said he would rise "in three days."  And his resurrection claims were recalled by the Jewish leaders in the phrase "after three days" (Matthew 27:63).  This appears to be counting days rather than labeling days, and it is more difficult for us to understand because we usually count differently.  They began counting on the first day.  This is inclusive counting.  In contrast, we begin counting on the second day, that is, after one complete day.  For example, if on Monday we knew we planned to do something on Wednesday, we would count 1 for Tuesday and 2 for Wednesday and say "in two days."  This is non-inclusive counting.  It is the sort of counting we employ when we measure the length of a particular item, placing the scale's zero-point at one end of the item and reading its length at the other.  Nevertheless, both phrases, "on the third day" and "after three days" must mean the same thing since they refer to the same event.  In their idiom, Christ rose after three days (on the third day).  In our idiom, Christ rose after two days (on the third day).

Their idiom is not really all that strange.  Musicians use this manner of speech regularly when they refer to intervals between different pitches.  For example, from C to E is called a "third" even though E is only two whole tones above C.  We might even observe this sort of counting if we were to ask a person to count off exactly 5 seconds.  Even though he might try to be very careful, calling out the numbers exactly a second apart, we would not be too surprised if he counts "1, 2, 3, 4, 5," which, of course, spans only 4 seconds.

This idiom is also seen in the story of Peter and Cornelius.  Cornelius was in Caesarea and Peter was in Joppa, a full day's walk away.  Cornelius sees the angel in the afternoon of day 1 (Acts 10:3) and sends messengers to Joppa.  On day 2 (verse 9) the messengers approach Joppa and Peter has his vision.  The messengers stay with Peter that night (verse 23).  On day 3 (verse 23) Peter and the messengers leave Joppa.  They arrive in Caesarea on day 4 (verse 24).  Cornelius explains to Peter that he saw the angel "four days ago" (verse 30) because he was using inclusive counting.  In contrast, if we were speaking on day 4 and describing something that occurred on day 1, we would say "three days ago" because we use non-inclusive counting.

The idiom is also illustrated by Jude's identification of Enoch as the "seventh from Adam" (Jude 14).  This is a reference to Genesis 5 where the seven are: Adam, Seth, Enosh, Kenan, Mahalalel, Jared, and Enoch.  If we were identifying this Enoch, we would say that he is the sixth from Adam, but Jude is using inclusive counting.

The idiom is also seen in 2 Kings 18:9-10 where the king of Assyria laid siege to Samaria in King Hezekiah's fourth year, and captured it in his sixth year.  The capture is said to occur "at the end of three years" rather than, as we would say, "two years later" or "at the end of two years."

Some maintain that Jesus, in order to rise on Sunday morning, must have been crucified earlier than Friday because of his own statement that he would be in the heart of the earth "three days and three nights" (Matthew 12:40).  However, many commentators see this too as an idiom meaning that three full days were wholly or partly covered.  This accords with the Jewish legal notion of considering any part of a day a whole day.

According to Jewish tradition, a day and a night make an onah, and a part of an onah is as the whole. Thus, "three days and three nights" need mean no more than "three days" or the combination of any part of three days.  (NIV Bible Commentary, on Matthew 12:40)

Recognizing inclusive counting, we conclude that the death of Christ "covered" three days – a small part of Friday, Saturday, and part of Sunday.  Thus, it is legitimate to say that Christ rose on the third day.  It is also legitimate, using the scriptural idioms, to say that Christ rose "after three days" and was in the earth "three days and three nights."

V. KEY SPANS

Several Bible passages, including three prophetic passages, summarize different chronological spans.

• Genesis 15:13, prophetic (compare Acts 7:6)
• Exodus 12:40 (compare Galatians 3:17)
• Acts 13:17-20
• 1 Kings 6:1
• Judges 11:26
• Jeremiah 25:11-12;  29:10, prophetic
• Daniel 9:24-27, prophetic

These spans are indicated in the following chart.  The spacing in this chart is for convenience only and is not intended to be proportional.

* See the section below, "The Patriarchs in Canaan"

Genesis 15:13 / Acts 7:6

God said to Abraham,

Know for certain that your descendants will be strangers in a country not their own, and they will be enslaved and mistreated four hundred years (Genesis 15:13)

God spoke to him in this way: `Your descendants will be strangers in a country not their own, and they will be enslaved and mistreated four hundred years.  (Acts 7:6)

The "country not their own" is best understood as Canaan where Abraham, Isaac Jacob, and his sons sojourned (Hebrews 11:9) until a famine forced their move to Goshen in Egypt.  Although they were sojourners in Canaan, they were given land in Goshen, the best part of Egypt (Genesis 46:28;  47:11)

"Enslaved and mistreated" refers to the latter part of their stay in Egypt.  At first they prospered, but after the death of Joseph, the new king began to oppress them (Exodus 1:6-11).

This means that the 400 years must refer to the entire period starting with Abraham's descendants (Isaac, Jacob, etc.) being strangers in Canaan and ending with the exodus.  Many commentators apply the 400 years only to the enslavement and mistreatment in Egypt.  But if that were the case, then the total span of time from the call of Abraham to the exodus would be much too long.  It would include 215 years in Canaan (see "The Patriarchs in Canaan" below) plus more than 70 years during the life of Joseph (see "Joseph in Egypt" below) when the Israelites received fair treatment in Egypt besides the 400 years of mistreatment.  This would make a total of at least 685 years which simply does not fit inside the span of 430 years given in Galatians 3:17.  Nor does it fit inside the span of approximately 450 years given in Acts 13:17-20.

The 400 years of Genesis 15:13 is probably a round number, for the following reasons.  Moses says that the 430 years (which we conclude spans from Abraham's entrance into Canaan until the exodus) is exact – "to the very day" (Exodus 12:40-41).  Based on Abraham's age of 75 when he entered Canaan (Genesis 12:4) and his age of 100 when Isaac was born (Genesis 21:5), Abraham lived in Canaan 25 years before Isaac was born.  We assume that the ages of 75 and 100 are exact since they are part of a sequence of ages given in Genesis 12 - 21 which include ages 86 and 99 (Genesis 16:16;  17:1).  Since the 430 and the 25 are both exact, the actual length of time Abraham's descentants were sojourners in Canaan and Egypt was 405 years (430 - 25), making the 400 years of Genesis 15:13 a round number.

The Patriarchs in Canaan

         0           75   100          175
         |Abraham-----|----|------------|
                    Into   |
                   Canaan  |
                      |    0       60                180
                      |    |Isaac---|-----------------|
                      |             0                   130 147
                      |             |Jacob---------------|---|
                      |                                Into
                      |                                Egypt
                      |                                  |
                      |<---- The Patriarchs' Sojourn --->|
                               in Canaan, 215 years

Abraham leaves Haran for Canaan when he is 75 years old (Genesis 12:4).  After another 25 years, when he is 100 (Genesis 21:5), Abraham's promised son Isaac is born.  Abraham dies at the age of 175 (Genesis 25:7).  Isaac is 60 when Jacob is born (Genesis 25:26).  Isaac dies at the age of 180 (Genesis 35:28).  Jacob is 130 when he and his family move to Egypt at Joseph's invitation, escaping the famine in Canaan (Genesis 47:9).  Jacob dies at the age of 147 (Genesis 47:28).  Thus the patriarchs sojourned in Canaan for 215 years (25 + 60 + 130).

Joseph in Egypt

         91                130   147
 Jacob ---|-----------------|-----|
                       Into Egypt
          0            30  39                             110
   Joseph |-------------|---|------------------------------|

Joseph was 30 years old (Genesis 41:41-46) when he interpreted the king's dream, predicted seven years of plenty then seven years of famine, and was placed in charge of Egypt.  After seven years of plenty and just two years of famine (Genesis 45:6), Joseph was 39, and this is the year his father Jacob was 130 (Genesis 47:9) and Jacob's family moved to Egypt.  Thus, Jacob was 91 when Joseph was born.

After Jacob's family moved to Egypt, Joseph lived another 71 years and then died at the age of 110 (Genesis 50:22, 26).  When the Israelites first entered Egypt, and all during the life of Joseph, they were treated well so that they prospered and expanded (Genesis 45:18-20;  47:6, 11;  Exodus 1:6-7).  But some time after Joseph's death a new king began to enslave and mistreat Israel (Exodus 1:8-11).

The time from the call of Abraham to the exodus from Egypt was 430 years.  The patriarchs sojourned in Canaan for 215 years and then the Israelites sojourned in Egypt for another 215 years.  Of this latter 215 years, at least 71 years were prosperous, leaving a period of enslavement and mistreatment which lasted up to 144 years.

Exodus 12:40-41 / Galatians 3:17

Now the length of time the Israelite people lived in Egypt was 430 years.  At the end of the 430 years, to the very day, all the LORD's divisions left Egypt.  (Exodus 12:40-41)

What I mean is this: The law, introduced 430 years later, does not set aside the covenant previously established by God and thus do away with the promise.  (Galatians 3:17)

By using the phrase "to the very day," Moses makes it clear that he is not using round numbers when he speaks of a 430 year span.

There is a textual problem in Exodus 12:40.  The 430 years mentioned in this verse, according to the reading found in the Masoretic text (and quoted from the NIV above), appears to cover only the time the Israelites lived in Egypt.  However both the Septuagint and the Samaritan Pentateuch add the words "and Canaan" after Egypt.  This expanded wording means that the 430 years extend back from the exodus not just to the time Jacob's family entered Egypt, but all the way back to the time Abraham entered Canaan.  In other words, this expanded reading includes within the 430 years both the patriarchal families' sojourn as foreigners in Canaan and the Israelites sojourn in Egypt.

In Galatians 3:17 Paul states that the Law was "introduced 430 years later" than the promise to Abraham (compare verses 16 and 18).  Paul's statement thus provides compelling reason to accept the "and Canaan" reading of the Septuagint and the Samaritan Pentateuch.

Regarding the end of the span, Paul refers to the introduction of the Law.  Since the receiving of the Law came about three months after the exodus, we have placed it on the same line in the above chart.  Exodus 19:1 explains that the Israelites arrived at the desert of Sinai in the third month (literally, on the third new moon) after the exodus.  Since the exodus occurred in the middle of the month (Exodus 12:1-11) when the moon was full, the first new moon would be half a month after the exodus and the third new moon would be two and one-half months after the exodus.  Even if there are a few additional days between the arrival at the desert of Sinai and the actual receiving of the Law, three months is a reasonable approximation of the time from the exodus to the receiving of the Law.

The reigns of Saul, David, and Solomon

Before looking at the next passage, it will be helpful to establish the length of the reigns of the first three kings of Israel.

In Acts 13:21 Paul says that king Saul reigned 40 years.  It is possible that this is a round number and that the actual length of reign was 42 years, according to 1 Samuel 13:1.  But, this latter passage is uncertain because of a textual problem.  The "two" is in the original Hebrew but the "forty" is not; it has been supplied by the translators.  Because of the difficulty with this passage, we rely on Paul's statement and adopt 40 as the length of Saul's reign.

Then David and his son Solomon each reigned for 40 years successively (2 Samuel 5:4-5;  1 Kings 11:42).

Acts 13:17-20

The God of the people of Israel chose our fathers; he made the people prosper during their stay in Egypt, with mighty power he led them out of that country, he endured their conduct for about forty years in the desert, he overthrew seven nations in Canaan and gave their land to his people as their inheritance. All this took about 450 years.   After this, God gave them judges until the time of Samuel the prophet. Then the people asked for a king, and he gave them Saul son of Kish, of the tribe of Benjamin, who ruled forty years (Acts 13:17-21)

This span of "about 450 years" begins with God choosing the fathers of Israel (presumably starting with Abraham), and ends with the conquest of Canaan.  Of course, it includes the 430 years mentioned in Exodus 12:40 and Galatians 3:17, as well as forty years that the Israelites wandered in the wilderness, plus the conquest of Canaan which took a few additional years.    Thus, the total is actually a few years greater than 470.

Verse 20a is somewhat ambiguous because the phrase "All this took" is not in the original Greek.   This has given rise to translations and interpretations which differ significantly from that quoted above (the NIV).  But when compared with the other passages in the chart, these other translations and interpretations come up short.  For example, some connect the "450 years" with the phrase "gave their land to this people" in the previous verse.  Thus they suggest that the sense is:  God gave them the land for 450 years.  But in this interpretation 450 years is far too short, for they actually had the land throughout the period of the judges (over 300 years), thru the reigns of Saul, David, and Solomon (another 120 years), and at least until the fall of Samaria (another 200 years), a total of over 620 years.  Others connect the "450 years" with the following verses.  Thus they suggested that the sense is: God gave them judges for 450 years until the time Samuel anointed Saul as their first king.  But in this interpretation 450 years is far too long, for when the wilderness wanderings (40 years, Numbers 32:13;  Acts 13:18) and the reigns of Saul and David (80 years) and the first four years of Solomon's reign are subtracted from the 480 years of 1 Kings 6:1, only 356 years remain.  Thus, the translation that appears in the NIV, and the interpretation that the 450 years runs from the call of Abraham through the conquest of Canaan, appears to harmonize best with the other relevant passages.

1 Kings 6:1

In the four hundred and eightieth year after the Israelites had come out of Egypt, in the fourth year of Solomon's reign over Israel, in the month of Ziv, the second month, he began to build the temple of the LORD.  (1 Kings 6:1)

This span starts with the exodus and extends to the fourth year of Solomon's reign when he began to build the temple by laying its foundation.  The completion of the temple took another seven and one-half years (1 Kings 6:37-38).

The Masoretic text has the number 480 while the Septuagint has 440.  Some have conjectured that the opening phrase was not in the original Hebrew.  Their conjecture is based on the fact that Josephus ignores the number 480 and gives a higher number for the same period, and some early church fathers quote the latter part of the verse and omit the first phrase.  However, there is no compelling reason to adopt the Septuagint reading in place of the reading found in the Masoretic text.

Judges 11:26

For three hundred years Israel occupied Heshbon, Aroer, the surrounding settlements and all the towns along the Arnon.  (Judges 11:26)

This passage is part of a message sent by Jephthah to the king of Ammon.  It seems likely that Jephthah is one of the later judges.  However, it cannot be assumed that the exploits of the various judges are all recorded in a precise continuous sequence, so it is difficult to give an exact date for this event.  But this is not a problem for our present purposes.  The beginning of the 300 year span can be placed at the end of the wilderness wanderings just before the death of Moses (compare Judges 11:19-22 with Numbers 21:21-35) and just before Joshua leads Israel into Canaan.  Thus, this 300 year span fits very comfortably into the larger span of 480 years given in 1 Kings 6:1.  That larger span includes the wilderness wandering (40 years) plus the reigns of Saul and David (80 years), and the first four years of Solomon's reign, and still has plenty of room for the 300 years mentioned by Jephthah.

Jeremiah 25:11-12;  29:10

"This whole country will become a desolate wasteland, and these nations will serve the king of Babylon seventy years.   But when the seventy years are fulfilled, I will punish the king of Babylon and his nation, the land of the Babylonians, for their guilt," declares the LORD, "and will make it desolate forever."  (Jeremiah 25:10-11)

This is what the LORD says: "When seventy years are completed for Babylon, I will come to you and fulfill my gracious promise to bring you back to this place.  (Jeremiah 29:10)

In these passages Jeremiah predicts that Judah will be captive in Babylon for seventy years.  Israel, the northern kingdom, has already fallen to Assyria, and Judah will soon fall to Babylon.

Daniel 9:24-27

Seventy 'sevens' are decreed for your people and your holy city to finish transgression, to put an end to sin, to atone for wickedness, to bring in everlasting righteousness, to seal up vision and prophecy and to anoint the most holy.  Know and understand this: From the issuing of the decree to restore and rebuild Jerusalem until the Anointed One, the ruler, comes, there will be seven 'sevens,' and sixty-two 'sevens.' It will be rebuilt with streets and a trench, but in times of trouble. After the sixty-two 'sevens,' the Anointed One will be cut off and will have nothing. The people of the ruler who will come will destroy the city and the sanctuary. The end will come like a flood: War will continue until the end, and desolations have been decreed. He will confirm a covenant with many for one 'seven.' In the middle of the 'seven' he will put an end to sacrifice and offering. And on a wing of the temple he will set up an abomination that causes desolation, until the end that is decreed is poured out on him.  (Daniel 9:24-27)

The angel Gabriel brings Daniel a message which predicts that there will be seven sevens and sixty-two sevens from the decree to rebuild Jerusalem until the Messiah.  Each seven is a period of seven years, so these sixty-nine sevens amount to 483 years.

The starting point of this 483 year span is the decree King Artaxerxes I of Persia gave in his seventh year (Ezra 7:7, 11-26).  The decree gives the Jews permission to rebuild the temple and to take silver and gold and to do what they want with any money left over (verse 18).  It appears that Ezra understood this to mean that they had permission to rebuild the city and its wall for he thanks God for "a wall of protection in Judah and Jerusalem" (Ezra 9:9).

Some scholars adopt an earlier or later starting point.  For example, some claim that the starting point is the decree of Cyrus in his first year (Ezra 1:1-5, 6:1-12).  But this decree pertains only to the rebuilding of the temple in Jerusalem, not the rebuilding of the city of Jerusalem.  When questioned, the Jewish leaders claimed only that they had been given authority to rebuild the temple and said nothing about rebuilding the city or its wall (Ezra 5, especially verses 11-16).  Others have claimed that the starting point is the permission given to Nehemiah to return to Jerusalem by Artaxerxes in his twentieth year (Nehemiah 2:1-8).  While it obviously relates to the city of Jerusalem, it is questionable as a public decree.  Also, even if it is considered a decree, it is not the first one that qualifies.

The 483 years extend "until the Anointed One" (the Messiah).  The most logical ending date would appear to be the baptism of  Christ, with which are associated John the Baptist’s announcement of him (John 1:29), the Father’s identification and approval (Matthew 3:17), and the beginning of Jesus’ public ministry.  This is the year that is so heavily dated by Luke (3:1) and referred to by Jesus as the “fulfilled” time (Mark 1:15).

VI. BETWEEN THE SPANS

VII. FROM ADAM TO ABRAHAM, GENESIS 5 AND 11

There are many genealogies in the Bible, connecting generation after generation in order to establish a person's lineage.  The most notable of these are the genealogies of Christ in Matthew 1 and Luke 3.  But the records preserved in Genesis 5 and 11 are not just genealogies.  They are chronologies as well, for they include the number of years from one generation to the next.  This sets them apart from other biblical genealogies and suggests that they were intended to serve a purpose beyond a mere genealogy.  The inclusion of the numbers forces one to consider the possibility that the numbers were placed there for a reason.

From Adam to Noah

The span of years from Adam to Noah is recorded in Genesis 5.  The surrounding chapters, even though they record the lineage of fathers and sons, give no ages.  But chapter 5 does give ages, and in a very precise and consistent formal pattern.  Here Moses records a continuous chain of fathers and sons, with ages at the sons' births, years until the death of the father, and total ages of the fathers at death.  Thus each generation is recorded in the following three part form

(1) When AAA had lived xxx years, he became the father of BBB.
(2) After he became the father of BBB, AAA lived yyy years.
(3) Altogether, AAA lived zzz years.

Below is a table of ages taken from Genesis 5.  The second column contains the numbers found in the Masoretic Text.  For comparison, the last two columns show the numbers found in two other ancient versions, the Septuagint and the Samaritan Pentateuch.  The Septuagint is the Greek translation of the Old Testament, the Pentateuch portion of which was translated around 250 B.C.  The Samaritan Pentateuch is a somewhat sectarian version of the Pentateuch maintained and modified by the Samaritans (stemming from the fall of Samaria in 722 B.C., the subsequent foreign repopulation of Samaria, the exclusion of the Samaritans by the Jews, and the establishment of temple worship on Mount Gerizim).

Scholars generally favor the reliability of the traditional Hebrew (Masoretic) Text over the Septuagint or the Samaritan Pentateuch.  The discovery of the Dead Sea scrolls has highlighted this reliability.  (For example, see the section entitled "The Biblical Text" in chapter 6 of F. F. Bruce's Second Thoughts on the Dead Sea Scrolls, 2nd edition, Eerdmans, 1961.  See also W. J. Martin's evaluation of the Samaritan Pentateuch and  D. W. Gooding's evaluation of the Septuagint in the article "Text and Versions" in Douglas' The New Bible Dictionary, Eerdmans, 1962.)  For this reason, the numbers appearing in the Masoretic Text are adopted here.

There is a total of 1056 years from the creation of Adam to the birth of Noah.  Based on Genesis 7:11, the flood came when Noah was 600 years old.  Thus the span from the creation of Adam to the flood was 1656 years.  The question of gaps in this listing is discussed later.

From Noah to Abram

Below is a table of ages taken mostly from Genesis 11:10-32.  The structure of this passage differs from Genesis 5 in that no total ages for the fathers are given.
 

*Genesis 9:29
**Luke 3:25-26 and the Septuagint version of Genesis 11 place Cainan between Arphaxad and Shelah.  The Septuagint says Cainan was 130 at the birth of Shelah.

      0                                  502      600  602
 Noah |-----------------------------------|---------|--|----->
                                                  Flood
                                                  starts
                                     Shem |---------|--|-------->
                                          0        98  100

       0                       130               205
 Terah |----------------------|--------|------|
                                    From Ur
                                    to Haran
                        Abram |--------|------|--------->
                              0              75
                                          Leaves Haran

The Problem with Cainan

Genesis 11:12-13 says that Arphaxad was the father of Shelah, as shown in the above table.  However, Luke 3:35-36 indicates that Shelah was not directly the son of Arphaxad.  Rather, it lists "Shelah, the son of Cainan, the son of Arphaxad."  This means that Moses' chronology in Genesis 11:12-13 in the Masoretic Text skips Cainan.  However, Cainan is included in the Septuagint (Greek), not only in Genesis 11:12-13 but also in Genesis 10:24 and 1 Chronicles 1:18.  The fact that Cainan is included in several passages in the Septuagint, but omitted in those same passages in the Masoretic Text, indicates that this difference is not the result of a simple copyist's error.  Rather, it is an intentional difference.

Some believe that the Septuagint has the better reading.  In other words, they hold that Cainan was originally included in the Hebrew text and was there when the Pentateuch was translated into Greek sometime around 250 B.C.  However, that would necessitate the intentional and systematic removal of Cainan from several passages in the Hebrew text sometime later – a very unlikely scenario.  A more likely explanation is that neither the Hebrew text nor the Septuagint translation of Genesis originally included Cainan, and that it was added to the Septuagint some time later.  All the existing copies of the Septuagint were made several hundred years after Christ, and do not necessarily reflect the original Septuagint.  These copies were made for Christians so it is reasonable to conjecture that Cainan may have been added in order to bring the Genesis record into conformity with Luke.  We take the position that Cainan was the son of Arphaxad, based on Luke 3:35-36, but he was not listed as the son of Arphaxad in Genesis.  Thus Shelah was the grandson, rather than the son, of Arphaxad.

The Hebrew words translated "father," 'abh and yaladh (used in Genesis 11:12-13), are very general, referring not only to a direct father, but also to a grandfather, great-grandfather, or ancestor.  For example, even though Abraham was the father of Isaac who was the father of Jacob, Abraham is called Jacob's father in Genesis 28:13.  The word yaladh has the additional flexibility of referring both to men fathering children and women giving birth to children.  Similarly, the Hebrew word for son, ben (also used in Genesis 11:12-13) can be understood as grandson, great-grandson, or descendant.  For example, in Genesis 29:5 Nahor's grandson Laban is referred to with the Hebrew word ben which is usually translated "son."  The NIV translates ben "grandson" here because Laban is actually the son of Bethuel and thus the grandson of Nahor (Genesis 28:5).  So there is enough flexibility in the Hebrew words for father and son to allow Genesis 11:12-13 to speak of Arphaxad as the father of Shelah when he was actually the father of Cainan, the father of Shelah.

When we say that the Hebrew words are flexible, we are not referring to the figurative use of these words.  Certainly these words are often used figuratively in Scripture.  For example, there are the constant references to God as "Father," and Jesus as his "Son."  Also, there are the references to the nation of Israel as God's "son" (Exodus 4:22).  And among humans, there is the figurative "father-son" relationship between Saul and David (1 Samuel 24:11, 16), even though David was the literal son of Jesse (1 Samuel 16:1, 11-13; Matthew 1:6; Luke 3:31-32).  But such figurative use is quite different than the flexible use of "father" and "son" described above.  The Hebrew words for "father," when used literally, appear to include a combination of the meanings of our English words "father" and "ancestor" or "progenitor."  And the Hebrew word for "son," when used literally, appears to include a combination of the meanings of our English words "son" and "descendant."

Joshua chapter 7 illustrates the use of these words in both their literal and figurative senses.  Achan is the son of Carmi, who is the son of Zimri, who is the son of Zerah of the tribe of Judah (verses 1, 18).  Yet, Achan is called the son (ben) of Zerah (verse 24).  This illustrates the literal use of the Hebrew word because this word includes both the idea of a direct son and a descendant.  Also, Joshua refers to Achan as his son (ben, verse 19).  This illustrates the figurative use of the Hebrew word because Joshua and Achan were not in the same line of descent.  Joshua was the son of Num of the tribe of Ephraim (son of Joseph, 1 Chronicles 7:22-27; Joshua 24:29-30) while Achan was of the tribe of Judah.

However, just because the Hebrew words for father and son are flexible, it should not be thought, as some have claimed, that biblical Hebrew had no explicit way of expressing "grandson."  Genesis 11:31 doubles the word (benben, literally "son of his son") to refer to Terah's grandson Lot.  See also Judges 8:22 and Jeremiah 27:7.

Genealogies and Gaps

Are there other gaps in these genealogies?  Some answer yes, or at least probably, based on such facts as (1) the existence of gaps in other biblical genealogies, and (2) the example of other ancient nations in their king lists.

There is no doubt that Luke 3:35-36 fills in one gap in Moses' chronology as explained above. This is an example of the New Testament filling in details missing in the Old.

For a second example, in which the Old Testament fills in details missing in the New, consider Matthew's genealogy of Jesus through the kings of Judah.  Matthew (1:8) states that

Jehoram (also called Joram) was the father of Azariah (also called Uzziah)

Jehoram was the father of Ahaziah (2 Kings 8:25)
Ahaziah was the father of Joash (2 Kings 11:2; 12:18)
Joash was the father of Amaziah (2 Kings 14:1, 23)
Amaziah was the father of Azariah (2 Kings 14:21)

For a third example, entirely within the Old Testament, compare the following two genealogies which trace the lineage from Aaron down to Seraiah, the father of Ezra and Jehozadak.  Although Ezra 7:3 says that Azariah was the son of Meraioth, he was actually his descendant 7 generations later, with 6 generations skipped.
 

These three examples are not the only examples of gaps in the biblical genealogies, but they are sufficient to establish the fact that such gaps exist.  For a complete discussion of these and other genealogies see William Henry Green's "Primeval Chronology" in Bibliotheca Sacra, April, 1890; or Robert G. Culver's "Old Testament Genealogies" in the Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society, January 1962; or the section on the "Antiquity of Man" in Part 2, Chapter 4 of James Oliver Buswell's A Systematic Theology of the Christian Religion (Zondervan, 1962).

Many scholars point out that there are Sumerian king lists in which each king reigned for several thousand years.  They consider such lists either mythical or composed of heads of families or dynasties only.  But it is questionable whether Genesis 5 and 11 are really king lists of any sort.  Besides that, it would be a mistake to make the Sumerian king list or other similar lists the standard for all others.

These facts have led some to assume that other generations in Genesis 5 and 11 (besides Cainan) have probably been skipped.  In fact, some conclude that the chronologies in Genesis 5 and 11 are actually lists of the most significant or the most well known ancestors, the names being names of clans or dynasties rather than individuals.  Thus they would cover a great deal more time than the totals listed in the above tables.

But it should also be kept in mind that Genesis 5 and 11 are unique because they are not mere genealogies; they are chronological genealogies – the numbers making them unique among all the other genealogical passages in the Bible.  So concluding that there are many additional gaps in Genesis 5 and 11 is an extrapolation without grounds.  While it is a possibility, it is not a certainty.

If there are gaps, even many gaps, would they greatly extend the span of time by hundreds or thousands of years?  Not necessarily.  If we assume that there is a gap in a particular listing, there are two ways to understand the ages in that listing.  First, the true ages could be understood to be indeterminate, as follows:

When AAA had lived xxx years, he became the father of the unnamed father/ancestor of BBB.

Second, the ages could be understood to be determinate, as follows:

When AAA had lived xxx years, his unnamed son/descendant became the father of BBB.

There is an obvious form in these two passages.  There are 10 names from Adam to Noah and 10 from Noah to Terah.  Also, both passages end with a listing of 3 brothers.  Some argue that the presence of this form shows that certain names were omitted and others selected purposely to create the form, perhaps so the list could be easily remembered.  But the appearance of the ages of the fathers at the birth of the sons (however "sons" is understood) is also an aspect of the form, and a very consistent aspect.  It would be a mistake to use one aspect of the form (the number of names in each list, etc.) to override another aspect of the form (the consistent reporting of the ages of the fathers).

The older chronologers reasoned that one could expect to add the numbers in these two passages and arrive at a total span from Adam to Abram, since they understood that to be the purpose of the passages.  But many Bible scholars in the last century claim that chronology is not the purpose of these passages.  Instead, they claim that these passages display other purposes, such as:

To show the weight of the curse by repeating "and then he died" (Genesis 5 only)
To show the gradual effect of sin in the progressively shorter life spans
To show how God faithfully preserved the genealogical line which led to Christ
To provide a selective pattern as an aid to the memorization of the ancestors of Christ

If the numbers were given to be added up, why doesn't the passage give the total?  This is a legitimate question.  However, the fact that there is no obvious reason for the lack of an explicit total is certainly not a sufficient reason to dismiss the numbers that are there.

We must be careful not to allow current scientific thought to control our interpretation of the Bible.  There appears to be a tendency on the part of some Christian scholars to adopt a particular scientific notion, such as the notion of the extreme age of mankind, then mold one's interpretation of the Bible to fit that notion.  However, scientific thought involves certain assumptions which must be carefully evaluated.  Also, scientific thought changes from century to century, and sometimes much more quickly.  This issue of the integration of science and theology is too involved to be covered in this paper.  The reader is referred to the paper "Integrating Science and Theology."